The Movement of Nat Turner

The Confessions of Nat Turner as recorded by Thomas Ruffian Gray chronicled the systematic and planned massacre of the white residents in the Cross Keys neighborhood of Southampton County, Virginia. At the time of the insurrection in 1831, Nat was an established preacher who felt compelled by God to murder whites who had oppressed him and his race. Through an examination of the map of his rebellion, it becomes evident that his trajectory was in no way random. Instead, his adept literacy allowed him and his small band of fellow slaves to calculatingly wreak havoc in Southampton County. 

In the minds of many Virginians and other southerners who were deeply disturbed by the prospect of an epidemic of slave rebellion, Nat Turner's literacy and intelligence provided for his ability to inflict damage. As a result, many southern state legislatures sought to ban reading and writing for enslaved people. Though Thomas Jefferson and writers like David Walker had predicted the violence of slaves, Nat Turner's actions triggered the passage of strict laws that sought to control and suppress further slave rebellion.
The careful attack of Nat Turner effected enslaved people who attempted escape to freedom afterwards and until Emancipation. They found that the grip of the slaveholding South had tightened out of the fear of the loss of control. His actions created obstacles for his fellow bondsmen even as he attempted to vindicate their wretched condition under slavery.

1. Nat Turner's Birthplace - Rosa Swamp, Southampton Co., VA

Narrative Excerpt(s)
"You have asked me to give a history of the motives which induced me to undertake the late insurrection, as you call it--To do so I must go back to the days of my infancy, and even before I was born. I was thirty-one years of age the 2d of October last, and born the property of Benj. Turner, of this county. In my childhood a circumstance occurred which made an indelible impression on my mind, and laid the ground work of that enthusiasm, which has terminated so fatally to many, both white and black, and for which I am about to atone at the gallows... I suppose, and my uncommon intelligence for a child, remarked I had too much sense to be raised, and if I was, I would never be of any service to any one as a slave--To a mind like mine, restless, inquisitive and observant of every thing that was passing, it is easy to suppose that religion was the subject to which it would be directed, and although this subject principally occupied my thoughts--there was nothing that I saw or heard of to which my attention was not directed..." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 8
Context and Analysis
Approximately midway between the Nottoway and Meherin Rivers in remote part of lower Southampton County, Virginia, Nat Turner was born on October 2, 1800. He was raised as the slave of Benjamin Turner, a religious man who had inherited the practice of slaveholding from the generations before him. Young Nat grew up with a strange intermixing of Christian and Pagan religious instruction. His own literacy, for example, he explained as a supernatural phenomenon. His traditional instruction seems to have included a "confusing collection" of African and English superstition and traditional African religious concepts glossed with Christian instruction. At such a young age, this cultural clash between family teachings and the Christian tradition of his master set the course to create a hybrid and altogether unique brand of religious fanaticism with a high intellectual capacity and the tools of literacy.
Essential Question
In what ways would literacy account for a "pathway from slavery to freedom"? How are literacy and geography contingent factors in the slave South?

2. Nat's Vision - Samuel Turner's Farm

Narrative Excerpt(s)
About this time I was placed under an overseer, from whom I ranaway - and after remaining in the woods thirty days, I returned, to the astonishment of the negroes on the plantation, who thought I had made my escape to some other part of the country, as my father had done before. But the reason of my return was, that the Spirit appeared to me and said I had my wishes directed to the things of this world, and not to the kingdom of Heaven, and that I should return to the service of my earthly master--"For he who knoweth his Master's will, and doeth it not, shall be beaten with many stripes, and thus, have I chastened you." And the negroes found fault, and murmurred against me, saying that if they had my sense they would not serve any master in the world. And about this time I had a vision--and I saw white spirits and black spirits engaged in battle, and the sun was darkened--the thunder rolled in the Heavens, and blood flowed in streams--and I heard a voice saying, "Such is your luck, such you are called to see, and let it come rough or smooth, you must surely bare it." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 9-10
Context and Analysis
By 1819, Nat Turner had been given over to Benjamin Turner's son, Samuel, upon the death of the elder Turner. The nation was in the midst of an economic panic. So instead of selling his slaves, Samuel Turner hired an overseer to demand for efficiency among his existing slaves, including Nat Turner. Around this same time as the new overseer was brought in, Nat described in his narrative a series of visions that he interpreted to be from the Holy Spirit. He felt as though he had been chosen to carry out the justice for his oppressed race. Led by those visions, some undocumented incident caused Nat to run away from the Turner plantation, only to return thirty days later. Even though there were likely men tracking Nat's escape in order to bring him back to the Samuel Turner farm, he voluntarily returned to the service of his "earthly master" as directed by the Spirit. His return only added to the mystique of Nat Turner as he continued to share his visions with those around him.
Essential Question
What motivations might cause an enslaved person to run away and return? What motivations might cause an enslaved person to avoid running away?

3. Joseph Travis - The Final Master

Narrative Excerpt(s)
"Since the commencement of 1830, I had been living with Mr. Joseph Travis, who was to me a kind master, and placed the greatest confidence in me; in fact, I had no cause to complain of his treatment to me. On Saturday evening, the 20th of August, it was agreed between Henry, Hark and myself, to prepare a dinner the next day for the men we expected, and then to concert a plan, as we had not yet determined on any." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 11
Context and Analysis
In 1822, Samuel Turner died and there was the strong possibility that Nat Turner would be sold to the deep South and separated from those he knew. He was evaluated at $400 and instead of being transported South, he was sold to Thomas Moore, a man who lived only a couple of miles away in Southampton County. Nat Turner endured backbreaking work during his time under Moore and was, by all accounts, a diligent laborer. He was permitted by Moore to preach at Barnes' Church near the Virginia/North Carolina border. In 1828, Thomas Moore died and Nat was bonded to Moore's nine year old son, Putnam. Almost a year later, Moore's widow married Joseph Travis who assumed supervision of the Moore slaves, including Nat. In his narrative, Nat referred to Joseph Travis as a kind master, but the events that would occur shortly after the transfer of ownership would indicate that Nat's treatment was not the mitigating factor in his planned attack. In February 1831, an eclipse of the sun signaled to Nat Turner that the time for the Judgement Day was coming.
Essential Question
Was there a relationship between the treatment of slaves and their desire to escape slavery?

4. Nat Turner's Insurrection - Cross Keys Neighborhood

Narrative Excerpt(s)
"...it was quickly agreed we should commence at home (Mr. J. Travis') on that night, and until we had armed and equipped ourselves, and gathered sufficient force, neither age nor sex was to be spared, (which was invariably adhered to.) We remained at the feast until about two hours in the night, when we went to the house and found Austin; they all went to the cider press and drank, except myself. On returning to the house, Hark went to the door with an axe, for the purpose of breaking it open, as we knew we were strong enough to murder the family, if they were awaked by the noise; but reflecting that it might create an alarm in the neighborhood, we determined to enter the house secretly, and murder them whilst sleeping." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 12
Context and Analysis
The area on the narrative map tour that is indicated by the red boundary lines is the approximate geographical area where Nat Turner led a group of slaves in violent rebellion against the white residents of the Cross Key's Neighborhood. After the rebellion was put down, there was considerable panic among growing numbers of Virginians that slaves throughout the state and South would rebel in a similar fashion. It became a strategy of the white leadership to emphasize that the violence of Turner's rebellion was confined to a single neighborhood and was led by a single fanatical and unique person: Nat Turner. In a part of Virginia where the population density of slaves was over 50% in 1830, it was essential to create a rationale for the uprising (see the map to the right). More importantly, white southerners needed assurance that another similar incident would be unlikely.
Picture
"Slaves, 1830," from The Atlas of Historical Geography of the United States of America
Essential Question
Why was it important for white Southerners to control the portrayal of Nat Turner and his rebellion before his capture? 

5. Nat Turner Insurrection, The Murderous Path

Narrative Excerpt 1: Travis Family
"... reflecting that it might create an alarm in the neighborhood, we determined to enter the house secretly, and murder them whilst sleeping. Hark got a ladder and set it against the chimney, on which I ascended, and hoisting a window, entered and came down stairs, unbarred the door, and removed the guns from their places. It was then observed that I must spill the first blood. On which, armed with a hatchet, and accompanied by Will, I entered my master's chamber, it being dark, I could not give a death blow, the hatchet glanced from his head, he sprang from the bed and called his wife, it was his last word, Will laid him dead, with a blow of his axe, and Mrs. Travis shared the same fate, as she lay in bed. The murder of this family, five in number, was the work of a moment, not one of them awoke; there was a little infant sleeping in a cradle, that was forgotten, until we had left the house and gone some distance, when Henry and Will returned and killed it." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 12
Narrative Excerpt 3: Reese Family
"We started from there for Mrs. Reese's, maintaining the most perfect silence on our march, where finding the door unlocked, we entered, and murdered Mrs. Reese in her bed, while sleeping; her son awoke, but it was only to sleep the sleep of death, he had only time to say who is that, and he was no more." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 13
Narrative Excerpt 5: Whitehead Family
"...started for Mrs. Whitehead's, (the other six were to go through a by way to Mr. Bryant's and rejoin us at Mrs. Whitehead's,) as we approached the house we discovered Mr. Richard Whitehead standing in the cotton patch, near the lane fence; we called him over into the lane, and Will, the executioner, was near at hand, with his fatal axe, to send him to an untimely grave...As I came round to the door I saw Will pulling Mrs. Whitehead out of the house, and at the step he nearly severed her head from her body, with his broad axe. Miss Margaret, when I discovered her, had concealed herself in the corner, formed by the projection of the cellar cap from the house; on my approach she fled, but was soon overtaken, and after repeated blows with a sword, I killed her by a blow on the head, with a fence rail." -- The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 13-14
Narrative Excerpt 2: Mr. Salathul Francis
"We remained some time at the barn, where we paraded; I formed them in a line as soldiers, and after carrying them through all the manoeuvres I was master of, marched them off to Mr. Salathul Francis', about six hundred yards distant. Sam and Will went to the door and knocked. Mr. Francis asked who was there, Sam replied, it was him, and he had a letter for him, on which he got up and came to the door, they immediately seized him, and dragging him out a little from the door, he was dispatched by repeated blows on the head; there was no other white person in the family." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 12
Narrative Excerpt 4: Turner Residence
"From Mrs. Reese's we went to Mrs. Turner's, a mile distant, which we reached about sunrise, on Monday morning. Henry, Austin, and Sam, went to the still, where, finding Mr. Peebles, Austin shot him, and the rest of us went to the house; as we approached, the family discovered us, and shut the door. Vain hope! Will, with one stroke of his axe, opened it, and we entered and found Mrs. Turner and Mrs. Newsome in the middle of a room, almost frightened to death. Will immediately killed Mrs. Turner, with one blow of his axe. I took Mrs. Newsome by the hand, and with the sword I had when I was apprehended, I struck her several blows over the head, but not being able to kill her, as the sword was dull. Will turning around and discovering it, despatched her also." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 13
Narrative Excerpt 6: Mrs. Waller and children
"...this was about nine or ten o'clock, Monday morning. I proceeded to Mr. Levi Waller's, two or three miles distant. I took my station in the rear, and as it 'twas my object to carry terror and devastation wherever we went, I placed fifteen or twenty of the best armed and most to be relied on, in front, who generally approached the houses as fast as their horses could run; this was for two purposes, to prevent their escape and strike terror to the inhabitants--on this account I never got to the houses, after leaving Mrs. Whitehead's, until the murders were committed, except in one case. I sometimes got in sight in time to see the work of death completed, viewed the mangled bodies as they lay, in silent satisfaction, and immediately started in quest of other victims--Having murdered Mrs. Waller and ten children, we started for Mr. William Williams' --having killed him and two little boys that were there..." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 14
Narrative Excerpt 7: Final Killing Spree
"Mrs. Williams fled and got some distance from the house, but she was pursued, overtaken, and compelled to get up behind one of the company, who brought her back, and after showing her the mangled body of her lifeless husband, she was told to get down and lay by his side, where she was shot dead. I then started for Mr. Jacob Williams, where the family were murdered--Here we found a young man named Drury, who had come on business with Mr. Williams--he was pursued, overtaken and shot. Mrs. Vaughan was the next place we visited--and after murdering the family here, I determined on starting for Jerusalem" - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 14
Context and Analysis
Systematically and with careful calculation, Turner and a band of disaffected slaves from the Cross Keys neighborhood in Southampton County, Virginia traveled to the houses of the white slave owners and took vengeance for the wrongdoings of slavery. The participants had been convinced by Nat that their work and mission was God's - Nat met with them to plot out and arrange the destruction. Though not mentioned in his narrative, it appeared that many of his fellow rebels had deep ties to the church where Nat preached and were convinced that their mission was justified. In his thorough account of the murderous path, Nat mentioned on several occasions that he was not responsible for many of the murders but oversaw the whole affair, earning him the nickname, "General Nat."
Essential Question
Based on these accounts from Nat Turner, was he complicit in the deaths of all of the whites murdered during the insurrection?

6. Confrontation with Militia - on the road to Jerusalem, VA

Narrative Excerpt(s)
"...we were met by a party of white men, who had pursued our blood-stained track, and who had fired on those at the gate, and dispersed them, which I new nothing of, not having been at that time rejoined by any of them--Immediately on discovering the whites, I ordered my men to halt and form, as they appeared to be alarmed--The white men, eighteen in number, approached us in about one hundred yards, when one of them fired, (this was against the positive orders of Captain Alexander P. Peete, who commanded, and who had directed the men to reserve their fire until within thirty paces) And I discovered about half of them retreating, I then ordered my men to fire and rush on them; the few remaining stood their ground until we approached within fifty yards, when they fired and retreated." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 15
Context and Analysis
After Nat and his small army finished their work of destruction and murder at the Vaughan House, they progressed to the James Parker homestead which bisected with the major road into Bethlehem, the county seat of Southampton. Word had reached local militias who had organized to suppress the slaves. Turner's group confronted the militia near the Parker house and the road to Bethlehem. At this point, Nat ordered the men to attack but after a small skirmish, the men dispersed and retreated  to the south east. They attempted to regroup and continue on their mission but after several days, Nat retreated further back to where he started: a small self-created cave close to the house of Joseph Travis, whom he had murdered just days before. Once the word spread among the white citizens of Southampton County, the full force of the lynch mobs and militia were in pursuit of the rebels who had perpetrated the violent massacre. Word of the insurrection spread all across the United States and fears of further violence rose in the Slave South.
Essential Question
Why did the rebellion of Nat Turner cause white citizens of the South to react in the way that they did in 1831?

7. Nat Turner in Hiding

Narrative Excerpt(s)
"...on Thursday night after having supplied myself with provisions from Mr. Travis's, I scratched a hole under a pile of fence rails in a field, where I concealed myself for six weeks, never leaving my hiding place but for a few minutes in the dead of night to get water which was very near; thinking by this time I could venture out, I began to go about in the night and eaves drop the houses in the neighborhood; pursuing this course for about a fortnight and gathering little or no intelligence, afraid of speaking to any human being, and returning every morning to my cave before the dawn of day." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 17
"...two negroes having started to go hunting with the same dog, and passed that way, the dog came again to the place, and having just gone out to walk about, discovered me and barked, on which thinking myself discovered, I spoke to them to beg concealment... I immediately left my hiding place, and was pursued almost incessantly until I was taken a fortnight afterwards by Mr. Benjamin Phipps, in a little hole I had dug out with my sword, for the purpose of concealment, under the top of a fallen tree. On Mr. Phipps' discovering the place of my concealment, he cocked his gun and aimed at me. I requested him not to shoot and I would give up, upon which he demanded my sword. I delivered it to him, and he brought me to prison." - The Confessions of Nat Turner, page 17
Context and Analysis
Nat had been in retreat for a couple of days after the confrontation with the militia on the road to Bethlehem. After vain attempts to rally his battered crew, Nat ventured back several miles and fashioned a cave near the house of Joseph Travis, who had been murdered by Nat days before at the start of the insurrection. For two months, the white population lived in terror as Nat remained in hiding. Eventually, his location was discovered by a hunting dog and two slaves who reported their discovery to a local farmer, Benjamin Phipps. Phipps discovered Turner who was still clinging to the sword that had been used months before and escorted him to the county jail in Bethlehem where he would swiftly be convicted and executed. 
Essential Question
How did the rebellion of Nat Turner effect white Southerners after 1831? How did the violent actions of Nat Turner effect slaves?

8. Nat Turner's Execution - Jerusalem, Virginia

Narrative Excerpt(s)
"You have been convicted of plotting in cold blood, the indiscriminate destruction of men, of helpless women, and of infant children. The evidence before us leaves not a shadow of doubt, but that your hands were often imbrued in the blood of the innocent; and your own confession tells us that they were stained with the blood of a master; in your own language, "too indulgent." Could I stop here, your crime would be sufficiently aggravated. But the original contriver of a plan, deep and deadly, one that never can be effected, you managed so far to put it into execution, as to deprive us of many of our most valuable citizens; and this was done when they were asleep, and defenceless; under circumstances shocking to humanity...I am, nevertheless called upon to pass the sentence of the court. The time between this and your execution, will necessarily be very short; and your only hope must be in another world. The judgment of the court is, that you be taken hence to the jail from whence you came, thence to the place of execution, and on Friday next, between the hours of 10 A. M. and 2 P. M. be hung by the neck until you are dead! dead! dead and may the Lord have mercy upon your soul." - The Committing Magistrate in The Commonwealth vs. Nat Turner
Context and Analysis
For decades prior to Turner's Revolt, prominent Americans had been imagining the possibilities of a slave uprising as an atonement for the national sin of slavery. From Thomas Jefferson to William Lloyd Garrison, it was conceded that slavery was a stain on the nation's morality. However, after the realization of this prophecy, there seemed to be strenuous efforts placed that emphasized the need for increased control and subjugation on the slave population instead of repentance and reform. After dictating his confession to Thomas Ruffian Gray, Nat Turner was swiftly executed for his part in the rebellion along with the execution of approximately forty other slaves who participated, conspired, or were accused by the courts.  He was hanged in Jerusalem, Virginia at the county courthouse in front of a crowd. The executions of the slaves involved were carried out in horrific manner: decapitated heads on display on public roads, quartering and flaying, and other forms of grotesque violence were used and were meant to quell further acts of slave rebellion.
Essential Question
Did the violence that had been anticipated by famous Americans and realized in Nat Turner's Insurrection result in Southern repentance and reform?

Sources Referenced

Digital Scholarship Lab of the University of Richmond. "Atlas of the Historical Geography of the United States." Accessed March 10, 2015.

French, Scot. The Rebellious Slave. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.

Greenburg, Kenneth S., ed. The Confessions of Nat Turner and Related Documents. New York: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press, 1996.

Johnson, F. Roy. The Nat Turner Slave Insurrection. Mufreesboro, N.C.: Johnson Publishing Company, 1966.

McCurry, Stephanie. "Amor Patriae." in Confederate Reckoning: Power and Politics in the Civil War South. Boston: Harvard University Press, 2012.

Oates, Stephen B. The Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner's Fierce Rebellion. New York: Harper & Row, 1975.